For the 2020 harvest, I purchased Syrah grapes from Lucas & Lewellen’s Valley View Vineyard in the Santa Ynez Valley. Today’s tasting of this spicy, savory wine reveals violets, lavender, cured meat, pink and black peppercorns, cranberries, blueberries, fresh bay leaf, petrichor/wet earth, cloves, bramble, cheddar cheese, shiitake mushroom and young tobacco. Opaque and purple in color, the wine is dry with high acidity, velvety tannins, high alcohol, and a medium body. What pleases me the most about this wine is the intensity of the perfume and flavor.

The fruit concentration and tannins, along with high acidity and alcohol, bode well for aging the wine. The alcohol in this youthful and developing wine is a touch more pronounced than I would like, but this is common for a wine hailing from a warm region and from this variety. Though the alcohol level of a bottled wine does not change, I am hoping that time will mellow out the Syrah's overall balance. It is a vibrant wine that can use some taming. Syrah is one of several grapes that fall under the spicy category.

Before we get too far ahead of ourselves, let’s examine what is meant when someone says a wine is “spicy.” Think about the cache of spices in your kitchen: cinnamon, cloves, pepper, nutmeg, anise, ginger, and cardamom being examples. You can actually smell and taste the natural chemical compounds of these spices not only when you reach into your spice cabinet but also when you drink a glass of wine. All fruits and plants, including grapes, draw from a common set of possible earthly elements, so it is no surprise that they share some chemical compounds. You don’t have to be an organic chemist to appreciate the excitement of detecting white pepper in your clam chowder as well as in your Grüner Veltliner.

There are a great number of wines that bring spicy elements to the wine tasting experience. The next time you enjoy a Mourvèdre or Syrah from the Southern Rhone, consider “cola” as a possible spicy descriptor. Just knowing that such a flavor could occur opens our mind to the possibility of finding it in our wine. If you happen to smell cola’s bittersweet, sour, and spicy elements in your wine, give cola a shoutout. Do you smell cumin in your glass of wine? If so, this spice is sometimes found in cool-climate Pinot Noirs and in orange wines. Orange wines are white wines that are vinified in the same manner as red wines and are also described as skin-contact wines. “Baking spices” is a catchall term used for wines that exhibit a combination of spices common in pies and coffee cakes: ginger, cardamom, clove, nutmeg and coriander, to name a few.

Stay open to the prospect of cinnamon aromas when you drink your next oaky Chardonnay or a Gewürztraminer or red wines made with Nebbiolo or Barbara grapes. Oak aging may contribute the aromas of cedar, cloves, sandalwood or vanilla. Viognier and Assyrtiko often carry the scent of ginger. Speaking of ginger and any flower, spice or fruit you detect in a wine, think about the evolution of the scent and its condition. Is the ginger fresh or stale? Candied? Dried? Is the pepper white, pink or black? Is the vanilla powerful as from a fresh pod or more like a diluted, low-cost extract? Is the star anise that you find in your California Zinfandel fresh and vibrant or aged and desiccated?

Every once in awhile, I get a client who wants to purchase a wine for medicinal or health purposes. “I need something to help me get a good night’s sleep,” says one. “I want to drink wine because it is healthier than the Scotch and bourbon I normally drink,” says another. “Can you help me find something that will turn off my thoughts so I can chill out after work?” asks yet another. Almost always, the person requesting help adopts a serious tone, one that might be used when asking for a remedy from a medical doctor.

​At this point, I visualize myself wearing scrubs, a stethoscope, a lab coat, and comfortable shoes. Recalling my theater days from college, I go deep, utilizing the Stanislavski method of acting. I mirror the client’s serious demeanor.

This a delicate situation because, while I want to deliver on the clients’ requests, I also feel the compelling need to inform them about wine’s role in relation to health and specifically the malady they hope to cure. As Doctor Wine, I simply cannot, in all good consciousness, simply recommend a bottle or two and send my clients on their way. To do anything less than compassionately explain how wine will affect my patients, I mean clients, and what they can expect, is a travesty to my commitment to the Hippocratic oath. Please, on the cellar stage, I am an artist.

Wine and alcohol in general have been appreciated for their medicinal properties since ancient times to cure everything from the plague to the common cold to poisoning and mental disease. Basically, any ailment you can imagine has been addressed by physicians, including Hippocrates, with a wine remedy. Records exist on such medical treatments in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, China and most civilizations. The Romans and Greeks in particular have a long history of appreciating the curative value of wine. Pliny the Elder was a leader in scientific and medical theories until the middle ages. He believed wholeheartedly in wine as medicine and became known for his quotes, “In vino sanitas” (in wine there is health) and, “In vino veritas” (in wine there is truth). While anything in excess can be detrimental to your health, I am not alone in valuing the magic that happens when you uncork a bottle of wine in good company. Wine, like tea and coffee, encourages us to slow down and have a good conversation with family and friends, something I find satisfying if not therapeutic.

Civilizations intent on treatment not only drank wine but also applied it to their wounds. They were on the right track, because wine is antiseptic and antimicrobial, contributing to the healing of wounds. Alcohol is a disinfectant, and the tannins in wine, along with other compounds, actually form an environment that is conducive to healing physical injuries. It is common knowledge that alcohol has been used throughout history as a safe alternative to polluted and infected water. The father of pasteurization, Louis Pasteur, felt that wine was “the most healthful and hygienic of beverages.” Sometimes civilizations added herbs or bitters to wine as they built impressive drinks to combat what ailed them, a tradition that continues to this day in the form of digestifs such as sweet vermouth, an aromatized wine with barks, herbs, spices, flowers and other botanicals. In Medieval Europe, monks provided health care to their communities. Many orders had their own proprietary recipes for wine-based medicine.

In the twentieth century, what is known as the “French paradox” came into vogue, when an article by Professor Serge Renaud revealed that the French, a culture notorious for producing and drinking wine, had a lower rate of coronary heart disease than Americans despite consuming a diet high in fat. While no research has proven that wine is responsible for the French paradox, science is demonstrating that the tannins, antioxidants and flavonoids in wine can contribute to good health, assuming the proper moderation. These nutrients can also be found in berries and grapes in their raw, unprocessed state. As a wine lover, I’m going for the fermented version when dinner hour rolls around.

When my mouth waters for wines with oak characteristics, I might first think of red Bordeaux variety grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon or Carménère because they are traditionally aged in oak, whether as blends (customary) or single variety offerings (gaining in popularity). In discussing oak aging, we often think of reds first, but whites are also part of the picture.

Just yesterday I ordered a R de Rieussec 2017 Bordeaux that is roughly half Sémillon (a grape that fascinates me) and half Sauvignon Blanc (also fascinating, but for different reasons). This wine is produced as a dry white in a sub-region of Sauterns that neighbors Château d’Yquem, a sweet white wine producer in a league of its own.

If you you appreciate the effects of oak in wine, you are not alone. Many of the world’s fine wines are aged in casks, giving the wines added complexity, richness, flavor and body. Oak imparts wonderful flavor compounds such as vanilla, spices, caramel, and smokiness. The winemakers of Burgundy are known for pioneering techniques to shape the flavors and richness of Chardonnay, including the use of old barrels, in both fermentation and aging. In addition to barrels, both whites and reds can be aged in stainless steel, concrete, amphoras, and other vessels, depending upon the choices of the winemaker. The R de Rieussec was barrel aged, and I can’t wait to receive the delivery at my doorstep in a few days.

Most white wines around the world are fermented in stainless steel tanks, giving the maker control over temperature, oxygen ingress and egress, and other elements of winemaking. Stainless steel tanks are a safe bet for the fermentation of whites. However, some vintners choose to ferment a portion of their white wine in oak barrels, like the making of the wine I just ordered. Twenty percent of the wine is fermented in barrels while the balance is directed to large vats for fermentation. Eventually, the barrel-fermented wine is blended with the batch from the large vats. The winemaker tastes the wine in each barrel to follow its unique characteristics, then decides how much from that barrel will be blended into the whole. This process allows for quite a bit of creativity in the final outcome of the wine. Fermentation in new oak provides expressive flavor and noticeable texture to white wine. If the winemaker ferments in previously used or old, neutral barrels, mostly the texture, rather than the flavor, will be affected.

Red wines require hands-on activities during fermentation to break up the cap of pulp and skins that build up on the surface of the wine. Techniques such as “punching down” ensure that this thick matter is redistributed into the wine so that the color, flavors and tannins will be properly extracted. The intervention that red wine requires makes it practical to use large vessels rather than wine barrels for fermentation. When I ferment wine at home, I gently push down on the pulp and skins and stir them into the wine. This stirring helps to cool the wine when fermentation is intense and the temperatures rises.

Part of my mothering of the wine is to monitor the temperature at least twice daily, and I keep dry ice on hand to cool the wine if necessary. If the fermentation temperature gets too hot, the health of the yeast is at risk and the warmth may attract undesirable organisms. The result can be wine with stewed fruit flavors and muted aromatics . . . wine that is a disappointing shadow of what it could have been. If the fermentation temperature is too low, the yeast can go dormant and stop working. Nobody likes a stuck fermentation. When that happens, you have to figure out how to wake up the yeast so that fermentation can continue until the wine is dry or deal with an end product that is undeveloped and sweeter than planned. Since sweet wines are not as popular in the market as in the past, most makers do everything possible to nurture the yeast throughout fermentation to ensure a dry finish.

During winemaking with grapes, I take sugar readings, taste the wine, examine the skins, seeds, pulp and liquid throughout the fermentation. In this manner, I develop an intimate relationship with the wine, as do many winemakers. Driving the fermentation is my favorite part of homebrewing. Perhaps car lovers feel this love when they take an excursion in a nifty car, especially a stick shift, where you effectively become a part of the machinery that enables the drive.

If you are handed a plate of sea bass that was pulled off the grill on a summer day, do you grace it with a splash or two of lemon juice? Refreshing, crisp acidity is a burst of excitement in your food and wine. Without acidity, wine would taste flabby and lifeless, as might that lovely sea bass. Acid contributes the tart, zippy, and/or sour flavors you experience in wine. The level can range from low to high, depending on the grape variety, growing conditions, climate, winemaking, and a host of other factors.

​Acid also performs a useful function: it inhibits the growth of bacteria and unsavory microbes. In other words, it acts as a preservative. If you enjoy the classic Italian dish, beef carpaccio, you understand the role of lemon juice or balsamic vinaigrette, aka acids, to protect the raw steak from bacteria and brighten up the flavor.

Low-acid wines taste fuller in the mouth, giving you a soft, round, mellow experience. Wines with high acidity deliver a leaner, more bracing adventure, like taking a vigorous run in cool weather. Wines with high acidity can help improve the wine as it ages, while those with low acidity can cause the wine to lose vibrancy. That is why collectors look for medium to high acidity in the wines they plan to age (along with substantial tannins, alcohol, fruit concentration, and possibly sweetness). A low-acid wine has less protection from contamination so it is customarily drunk young. Sometimes low acid wines, with their sensitivity to oxidation, develop a hazy appearance, though this can be avoided by the winemaker with the addition of sulfur dioxide and/or filtering.

Don’t restrict yourself to either low-acid or high-acid grape varieties; try them all. Many times I have made the mistake of thinking a wine did not have the right resumé only to be surprised and thrilled by the wine’s magnificence. In fact, I made the same mistake when a man who was a few years younger than me (wrong resumé) working at the same firm (double wrong resumé) dropped by my office to “chat” some years ago. That man later turned out to be my husband, Peter.

Once in awhile, you run across a white wine with a surprising mouthfeel or flavor, something that takes you aback and causes you to pay attention. Wines with phenolic bitterness may be among them. Certain grape varieties are known for producing wines that finish with a subtle and pleasant bitterness reminiscent of the sensation you get after eating a young almond or a grapefruit pith. This bitter aspect refreshes and dries out your mouth in preparation for the next drink. Phenolic bitterness causes polarities among drinkers as most people either love it or hate it.

A difference of opinion over phenolic bitterness can occur between happily married couples who have developed a habit of sharing a bottle. Peter and I typically open a bottle with dinner, and the talk sometimes turns to a discussion of the wine that has been poured. I might ask, “What do you think of this Cabernet Franc?” To which he might respond, “Give me a minute,” and take an assessing drink. His answer: “There’s just not much there for me. It just doesn’t do it for me.” It’s a real head-scratcher when your partner does not share your zest for something you find completely scrumptious.

For example, this very morning I got around to tasting a white plum that I had picked up at the farmers market on Sunday. It was so delicious that I felt I had to share it with Peter as part of our marital contract. I cut off a generous portion of the plum with my Japanese pairing knife and offered it to him as though I was the Eve to his Adam. Peter took a bite. To my surprise, his face took on a pained expression and he said, “It’s too sour!” To which I responded, “The tartness is the best part!” I understand intellectually that we are each entitled to our own opinion of what we like and don’t like, so I refrained from explaining that the tartness of the plum was balanced by the fruit’s sweetness and flavor elements. I took back from Peter what was left and consumed the balance of the plums, guilt-free.

Tannins, to me, are the absolute magic of red wine. They contribute longevity, color, flavor, body and overall textural richness. While I adore tannins, I am simultaneously and confusingly captivated by grape varieties that are known to be low in tannins, such as Grenache, Frappato and Gamay. Just when I think, “Ah, ha! I have finally discovered my Holy Grail of wine characteristics,” plenty of opposite examples have me re-thinking my earnest declarations.

​This leads me to believe that there are no hard-and-fast rules about what makes a wine great. Maybe instead of seeing a bottle of wine as possessing specific attributes that you either chase or run away from, it is more open-minded and adult to view each bottle as an individual whose secrets are yet to be revealed. But I digress, so let us explore the world of tannins and why they are a subject of fascination and delight for drinkers, scientists, and industry insiders.

Tannins provide structure to a wine, just as your skeleton supports your body. Without tannins, red wine would be cloyingly sweet. That is why tannins are one important element of a wine’s balance, along with acidity, fruit concentration, sweetness, alcohol, and texture. You eat and drink tannins as a matter of course because they are present in coffee, tea, dark chocolate, walnuts, cranberries and other plant-based foods and beverages. Oak can also contribute tannins to a wine, especially new oak. Producers sometimes use additives such as oak powder to increase the perception of tannins; this practice is associated with large-scale, low-end wines. Seriously, can you see yourself drinking anything that contains oak powder?

Tannins are responsible for the astringent, mouth-puckering sensation of dryness you get in the mouth when drinking wine. When a red wine with firm tannins enters your mouth, it binds to the proteins in your saliva and washes much of the saliva away, leaving your mouth with a feeling of dryness and astringency, even bitterness. To determine whether a wine is high or low in tannins (or something in-between), pause to consider how dry your mouth feels during and after a drink. The dryer your mouth feels, the more tannic the wine. When you drink a delicious wine that is generous with tannins, even while the wine is still in your mouth and yet to be swallowed, why hurry? Experience wine's aromas, flavors and sensations. Much of wine tasting is thoughtfully paying attention to what is in the glass and your mouth. Drink plenty of water between sips to help your body hydrate and to produce more lubricating saliva. Pace yourself.

Most wines are of a medium body. Our reflections today, however, deal with opposite ends of the spectrum: lean, dancing-on-the-tongue, light-bodied wines verses rich, full-bodied examples. One is a ballet star, the other, a sumo wrestler. Do you have a favorite? In the world of light- verses full-bodied wines, one is not better than the other. They simply offer different experiences. Many of the world’s greatest wines, such as high-quality Bordeaux examples, are full-bodied personalities that deliver nuanced, complex flavors and a long finish.

You think of these full-bodied wines, many of them primarily composed of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, as having the stuffing needed for aging gracefully (medium to high alcohol, tannins, fruit concentration, etc.). Northeast of Bordeaux are the great reds of Burgundy, focused on Pinot Noir. These wines show off a completely different body type: lithe, light, and just as nuanced and complex as their Bordelaise counterparts.

To understand the difference between full-bodied and light-bodied wines, think about the difference between whole milk and skim milk. It is a matter of viscosity. A full-bodied wine has weight and texture in the mouth. We tend to drink full-bodied wines more slowly, possibly because the mouthfeel captures our attention or the mechanics of drinking a full-bodied wine are more complex than those of light-bodied quaffs. Rich, full-bodied wines are especially attractive in the winter and with heartier meals, such as roast beef, while lean, delicate wines are just the ticket for lighter fare, such as red snapper with lemon slices and herbs baked in parchment packets, served in the heat of summer on a deck overlooking the ocean. Not surprisingly, there are exceptions to these commonly accepted pairing guidelines. For instance, some crisp and lean whites, such as dry Rieslings from Australia, with their dancing acidity, can work well to cut through the fats of heavy meals, even steak. That type of match is unconventional, but if it pleases your palate, who’s to say it is wrong?

As a winemaker, I have found that it takes more skill to make a top-quality light-bodied wine than a full-bodied one. Grapes used for full-bodied wines are typically bursting with concentrated fruit flavors, with the reds often sporting a dash of spice from time in oak as well as firm tannins. These bold, beefy wines interact with your palate at full volume, with the possibility of masking flaws such as smoke taint, Brettanomyces or volatile acidity. Makers of light-bodied wines have no place to hide such flaws. A lean wine can also have concentrated fruit flavors, spice, and tannins, but because it lacks the “clothing” of a much richer wine, you can more easily unveil its secrets. Light wines are naked to your observation, broadcasting the quality of the grapes, vintage vagaries, mistakes made in the cellar by the winemaker, or poor storage issues. Winemakers can increase the body of any wine, red or white, through oak aging, fortification, back-sweetening and other production techniques. Conversely, a wine’s body can be lightened through fermentation practices, adding water or other liquids, and blending.

A lean wine can also have concentrated fruit flavors, spice, and tannins, but because it lacks the “clothing” of a much richer wine, you can more easily unveil its secrets.

When you are in the mood for a full-bodied wine, you might first think of reaching for a red. Inky reds set the tone for a brooding drink as you cozy up to the fireplace to discuss your world domination plans with a respected mentor. However, you might be selling yourself short if you neglect to consider a full-bodied white. Certain white varieties, such as Viognier and Marsanne, have characteristics that lend themselves to the production of rich and lush wines that are ideal for heavier meals and conversations. When the winemaker has the budget and time, a white can achieve further richness through techniques in the cellar that might include letting the wine rest on lees (spent yeast), barrel fermentation, oak aging, malolactic fermentation, and skin contact (the making of a white wine usually involves separating the skins from the grape immediately after harvesting; leaving the skins on for some degree of time adds texture).

Would you say weather plays an important role in setting the tone for your choice of an earthy or fruity wine? For instance, here in San Francisco, we are experiencing twenty-five-mile-an-hour winds and, for some, subsequent power outages. I can tell you that my run at forty-three degrees Fahrenheit this morning in Golden Gate Park was nothing short of invigorating. Peter called out “good luck” as I leapt forth into the wild outside. I had a psychological advantage, though: friends had sent photos of themselves enjoying time with their families in several feet of snow. That’s why today’s run was totally in my wheelhouse. 

Tonight the wine will be a nice earthy red, maybe a Nero d’Avola, to keep a late winter’s brisk weather at bay. A quick look into the wine fridge reveals the perfect candidate: a 2017 Cerasuolo di Vittoria by Donnafugata, a spicy blend of Nero d’Avola and Frapatto out of Sicily. As we are having this conversation, I have been deciding whether to cook tonight’s Halloumi cheese over vegetables in the pizza oven outside as planned or pay my due respects to the gusty winds and cook a traditional red-sauce pasta indoors. While I am leaning toward the pasta dinner as a matter of practicality (pizza ovens are not keen on inhaling blustery winds), if we lose electricity like some of our San Francisco sisters and brothers, the decision will be made for me. Cooking outside with fire is my favorite, wind be damned. Either scenario bodes well for the Cerasuolo and the dinner. On a different day, one where I have been in the backyard laying in the warm sun reading a good detective story, I might pick a different Italian offering: a fruity Schiava, perhaps. The light-bodied 2019 by Manincor from Italy’s Alto Adige, also in the wine fridge, would be a perfect pairing for a warm easygoing day.

Choosing an earthy or fruity wine can also depend on the course of your dinner and what you are serving. With a Caesar salad, will you opt for the floral, white peach and lemon zest aromas of a Torrentés from Argentina to marry with the zing of the salad’s Dijon mustard and anchovy? Or do you favor the more earthy, grassy experience offered by a Sauvignon Blanc from the Nelson region of New Zealand to complement the crunchy freshness of romaine lettuce?

The determination of whether to produce a wine that is dry, sweet, or somewhere in-between is made when the winemaker designs the wine and determines the process. When I get the urge to make wine, I think about the possibilities, including grape variety, the attributes of the vineyard, yeast selection (shall I go with commercial yeast or wild?), fermentation approach, equipment to be used, and, of course, sweetness level. I typically elect to make a dry wine, but even then, it is not just a matter of reading sweetness levels on a refractometer to determine when the wine has completed fermentation.

​When it comes to determining sweetness, I have a broad idea in mind. For instance, when I have determined that I want to make a dry wine, I check the wine throughout the fermentation process, not only using tools to monitor the wine’s progress but also by tasting the wine. By sampling the wine as it develops, I can identify the sweet spot, or perfect moment, to halt fermentation. If I halt it too soon, the wine will be sweeter than I intended. If I halt fermentation too late, the wine, while dry, will seem thin and lacking in character. There are no hard-and-fast rules that dictate fermentation timeframes. Each batch is unique, so I mother my fermentations, carefully overseeing each and every aspect of the development of the wine. And, that my friend, is only one of many reasons why making wine is such a hands-on, personal experience.

Some winemakers, when preparing to make wine, have no choice in the matter of sweetness level. An example of this would be if the winemaker is told to work within an established brand or house style so that he can ensure the consistency that his shareholders and consumers have come to expect. Even when a sweetness level has been decided upon, there is a range of the amount of sugar that you will find in the wine. Generally, a dry wine will have less than ten grams per liter of wine. That means you could find nine grams per liter in one dry wine and three grams in another, even though both fall within the dry wine parameter. Sweet wines, the type you would consider dessert wines, often have over thirty grams per liter. There are many wines that fall somewhere between the dry and sweet levels.

Most winemakers do not include nutritional information on their labels, though some do. This puts us all in the position of either tasting the wine for ourselves to assess sweetness or relying on a guide, such as a sommelier or retailer, to give us a feel for the level of sweetness. Also, certain regions, grapes and wine styles are typically expected to be dry or sweet. For instance, if you are buying a Moscato, you are shopping for a sweet wine. If you buy a Barolo, you would be very surprised if it was sweet unless you were buying it in spirits form such as a Chinato.

I was having a conversation with a French winemaker recently and he described the American palate as being drawn to bigger, sweeter Bordeaux style blends rather than the dryer, more austere wines that the French are known to cherish. I had to concede that wines from the Napa Valley and other warm regions in the States tend to be made with riper fruit and therefore have more perceived sweetness, higher alcohol levels and a bigger body than several French wines. Many American winemakers, however, are following a trend toward less sweet, lower alcohol wines by selecting cooler grape growing sites, canopy management, picking grapes before they get overripe, and steering fermentations precisely. This trend has also been going on in recent years in other countries, such as Spain and Argentina, who have a past reputation for big, oaky, alcoholic wines that tend to be sweeter than those of the French.

The sweetness level refers to the amount of residual sugar that remains in the wine after fermentation. A wine’s sweetness level starts in the vineyard, where every vintage has something different to offer in terms of the amount of rainfall and wind, sunshine and heat, and other variables. One of the most important decisions made by the winemaker is when to pick the grapes. If too soon, the wine may taste undeveloped or a bit green. Too late and the wine may be overly rich and alcoholic and sweet. Each vintage has something very different to offer, especially in regions with continental climates, and that is why serious wine buyers pay especially close attention to not only the producer and type of wine but the year of the harvest as well.

Once the grapes are brought into the cellar, the winemaker with the intent of producing a dry wine establishes ideal conditions for the yeast to actively feast on grape sugars. During fermentation, a happy, healthy yeast colony converts the sugars into, mostly, alcohol and carbon dioxide. This typically leaves very little residual sugar in the wine. To produce a sweet wine, the winemaker halts fermentation before the yeast can convert all of the sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide.

The winemaker has several choices for halting the fermentation, and this basically means that her intent is to kill the yeast colony so it is no longer productive. She can chill the wine, add sulfites or other additives such as grape spirits, or filter the wine, or a combination of techniques. Wine can also be made sweet by adding a sweetener, such as unfermented grape juice, after fermentation and stabilization. This process is known as backsweetening.

When I was explaining the process of driving the sweetness level in a wine to a crowd, someone asked, “If you want to make a sweet wine, why add yeast at all? Then you won’t have to kill the yeast to stop them from eating the sugars.” My answer: grapes, apples, and other fruit have naturally occurring yeast on their skins and other parts, so one way or another, you will have yeast present. When you add commercial yeast to grape juice, it overtakes the wild yeast during fermentation to produce wine that is more stable and offers more predictable outcomes. If you were on a planet where no yeast naturally occurred on fruit and you added no commercial yeast, you would not have alcohol, you would simply have grape juice, because the work of the yeast would not take place. The grape juice you see on the shelf at the grocery store has been stabilized so it does not allow fermentation, and therefore alcohol, to occur.

Sweet wine production starts in the vineyard, where producers grow grapes that are naturally high in sugar and farm them in a way that will concentrate the sugars. Some sweet wine grapes are purposely allowed to become “infected” in the vineyard by a fungus known as Botrytis cinerea or noble rot. Some of the world’s finest sweet wines, such as those produced in the Sauternes region of Bordeaux, capitalize on the help of noble rot to concentrate the finished wine’s acids, flavors and sweetness. While the idea of allowing something to rot may seem off-putting in the world of wine and food, consider that the art of cheesemaking is a process of controlled spoilage. Do you think twice about eating cheese, or yogurt for that matter?

Many people are predisposed to preferring either dry or sweet wines, but both hold a special place at the dinner table. Just the other night Peter and I were at a lovely restaurant in La Jolla, California, and when it was time for dessert, I opted for a sweet wine from vineyards in the Montilla-Moriles wine region in Southern Spain in lieu of the pastry offerings. The Alvear Pedro Ximénez Solera 1927 was my dessert, and I was as happy as a cat jawing a fresh-caught mouse. The Alvear winery was founded in 1729, and the family specializes in fortified wines featuring the Pedro Ximénez grape, also known as PX when it is offered as a single varietal.

The Solera 1927 is one of the world’s best PX wines. It is made using a solera system that was built in 1927, and hence the name of the wine. Solera is a system for blending and aging wine, beer, brandy, vinegar or other liquids so that the finished product integrates the various ages. The moment I laid my eyes on the dessert wine menu and found this offering, I knew it was going to be something special. And it was, with a full body and rich, complex flavors. Honeyed figs, maple, crushed nuts, and caramel come pleasantly to my memory.

If you taste a sweet wine of high quality for the first time, you may be surprised by how fresh and alive it is because the sugar is beautifully balanced by concentrated acidity, flavor and possibly tannins. Any grape variety can be made in either a dry or sweet style, but some varieties are especially versatile and will shine on both ends of the spectrum, such as Chenin Blanc, Sémillon and Riesling. Many sweet white and red wines are blends, such as Tokaji, Port, Sauternes, and Vin Santo Rosso; blends are not included in this list.

If you taste a sweet wine of high quality for the first time, you may be surprised by how fresh and alive it is because the sugar is beautifully balanced by concentrated acidity, flavor and possibly tannins.

You can develop your ability to determine the sweetness of wine by tasting wines at all sweetness levels and categorizing them in line with what trusted resources say about them. Developing your ability to determine sweetness levels is a fine excuse to spend an afternoon with a knowledgeable friend or mentor, tasting through various wines and labelling them as dry, off-dry or sweet. I love setting my palate to one of the driest wines available, and that is a Fino Sherry which is made using the Palomino Fino grape. Fino Sherries have a number of yeast strains to create “flor” involved in their production. The flor creates a thick layer on the surface of the wine in the barrel. You also have flor making its way through the body of the wine and providing lees (dead yeast) at the bottom of the barrel. All this chewing and eating by the flor as it lives and dies gives us a unique and ultra-dry wine with a very distinct character. Most wines enjoyed after a glass of Fino Sherry quickly reveal their level of sweetness.

When determining the sweetness level, keep in mind that residual sugar is only one component of the wine. Perceived sweetness is what we are talking about, with factors such as acidity, tannins, fruit concentration and other aspects influencing the final taste. Specific categories exist for the dry to sweet spectrum, such as dry, off-dry, medium-dry, medium-sweet, sweet, and luscious. You do not have to get that fancy or specific, but giving thought to the sweetness level of a wine helps you select wines that are in line with your particular palate. Thoughtful assessment also increases your knowledge and appreciation of wine.

Wines that are described as “off-dry” or “semi-dry” fall somewhere in the middle of dry and sweet, finishing with a mild and pleasing sweetness. Since our list does not focus on attributes that fall somewhere in the middle of any spectrum, off-dry/semi-dry wines are not included. Sometimes a wine is not technically sweet but gives you an impression of sweetness because the grapes were picked when they were very ripe. This is common in wine regions with hot climates. Oak barrels can also give the impression of sweetness when you pick up the aromas of vanilla or caramel, for example. While our minds link flavors like ripe fruit and vanilla to sweetness, the finish of the wine in your mouth is the best indicator of the sweetness level. If you are working toward a certification and need to identify the sweetness level in a blind tasting exam, consider what one of my teachers advised the class: most wines are considered to be dry.

Dry Varieties

Whites:

Albariño
Arneis
Arinto
Chenin Blanc (dry)
Colombard
Cortese (Gavi)
Dafni
​Furmint (dry)
Garganega (Soave and Gambellara)
Godello
Grechetto
Grenache Blanc
Grillo
Grüner Veltliner
Macabeo
Palomino Fino/Listán Blanco
Pinot Grigio
Prié Blanc
Riesling (dry)
Sauvignon Blanc
Verdejo
Verdicchio
Vermentino
Viura/Macabeo
Torrontés (dry)
Trousseau/Bastardo

Reds:

Aglianico
Bobal/Bovale
Cabernet Sauvignon (cool climate)
Dolcetto
Mourvèdre/Mataro/Monastrell
Nebbiolo
Nero d’Avola 
Petite Sirah
Petit Verdot
Pinotage
Ruchè
Sagrantino
Sangiovese
Syrah/Shiraz
Tannat
Tempranillo
Touriga Nacional

Sweet Varieties

Whites:

Chenin Blanc (sweet)
Gewürztraminer (sweet)
La Crescent
Muscat Blanc/Moscato (sweet)
Pedro Ximénez/PX
Petit Manseng (Jurançon, Pacherenc)
Riesling (sweet)
Sémillon/Semillon (sweet)
Silvaner/Sylvaner (sweet)
Solaris
Zinfandel (white)

Reds:

Brachetto d’Acqui
Muscat (black)
​Liatiko (sweet version)

This is one in a series of Grape Detective blogs featuring the attributes of wine and how your love for a specific wine grape may lead you to discover new grapes with similar characteristics. The focus of the list is grape variety and does not include blends, wine regions, or styles.

Peter and I have been watching a lot of crime dramas lately, the type of detective series you find on HBO and Netflix any night of the week. The main characters pound down Jack Daniel’s before, during and after work while looking for patterns and connections to pull together their thinking regarding a crime. Maybe if the detectives drank wine instead of whiskey, they would solve the case in half the time. But then the series would only last a couple of weeks and we would get less entertainment. So strike that idea.

When I am trying to solve the mysteries of wine, I rely on things I have noticed — patterns — to make the connections I need to understand what is in the glass and to find new wines that will delight my palate. Like my colleagues, friends, advisors, and clients who are obsessed with wine, I know that one way to increase my chances of picking a winning bottle is to personally experience and understand the personality and traits of each grape variety. Then I ask myself how each grape’s attributes are similar to or different from other varieties.

Clients often ask me to suggest exciting new wines for their consideration. In response, I sometimes introduce grape types that have similar qualities to what they are accustomed to drinking. The conversation goes something like this: “If you like this grape variety, you may also like this wine that is made from a different grape. While the grape is different, it produces a wine that has similar characteristics to what you like.” For instance, if my client likes a full-bodied, creamy Napa Valley Chardonnay, I could introduce a Viognier, which is also full-bodied and typically oak aged with creamy goodness. The Viognier offers intriguing new aromas and flavors for a novel experience yet lives within the comfort zone and preferences of the taster. If a client is excited by Cabernet Sauvignon’s bold tannins, I might pull out a bottle of Nebbiolo which also has a lion's share of tannins.

Many times, the grape variety I am introducing is more obscure than the usual Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Pinot Noir or Syrah. Less well known varieties sometimes cost less than famous grapes at the same quality level and this pleases my clients to no end. The aromas, flavors and mouthfeel of an obscure grape can provide an exotic experience while not breaking the bank. Who can say no to that? As the palates of my clients evolve, we continuously identify the key aspects of the wines they love in order to explore new grape varieties, wine regions, vintages, producers and production techniques. Tasting by grape variety is one of many ways to continuously hone your knowledge of the wines of the world.

If you are interested in searching out new wines, determine the characteristics that please you, then find other wines with similar qualities. In other words, find what you like and Switch It Up. Maybe you like spicy red wines so you frequently purchase a Shiraz from Australia’s Barossa Valley wine region or a Syrah from the Northern Rhone. Using this approach, you might swap your usual choice for a Garnacha from Spain’s Priorat region to tap into Garnacha’s spicy aromas and flavors.

Perhaps you like your white wines light-bodied, with acidity that practically slaps you in the face, such as you might get with a Sauvignon Blanc from the Marlborough wine region of New Zealand. In that case, you could swap it for a dry, fresh and fruity Chenin Blanc from the Stellenbosch district of South Africa. Chenin Blanc has exceptionally high acidity no matter what the sweetness level. In fact, the longer Chenin stays in your mouth, the more your awareness of its acidity grows until you feel you absolutely must swallow the wine. Now that’s drama! You might be a more low-key type, one who favors wines that are subtle and nuanced, those that do not make a loud statement but have plenty to say. In this case, you might have Pinot Noir in mind, maybe a nice number from Burgundy. A Beaujolais Villages or Cru, made with the Gamay grape, might be your new thrill. Both wines are typically light-bodied and fruity with low tannins, though there are exceptions.

If you go in for full-bodied wines that you can practically chew, complete with oak influences, you might be scanning the wine list at your local steak house for a Cabernet Sauvignon from California’s Napa Valley wine region. Ask your server for a Malbec from Argentina’s Uco Valley in lieu of the Cab as they share the qualities you love. The Malbec will have grainier, more rustic tannins than the Cab’s tight tightly woven tannins, providing your mouth with a new thrill of texture. Maybe earlier in the day you were charged with the shopping and your spouse asked you to bring home a sweet Riesling. Keep the marriage exciting by picking up a Moscato from Italy’s Piedmont area to deliver the sweetness. If your partner gets angry that you did not follow directions on the choice of grape, no problem! Just Switch It Up: find a mate with attributes that are more in line with your own preferences. Perhaps you are the type who wants to be as fully in control of your faculties as possible, even when relaxing, so you always drink Pinot Grigio because it is typically low in alcohol. Break out of your rut with a Grüner Veltliner from the Wachau wine region of Austria. You will enjoy a low-alcohol drink with a dash of white pepper stimulus.

The Switch It Up approach gives you more confidence and pleasure in buying an unfamiliar wine. It minimizes the number of bottles you wish you had never bought. This method provides a framework for thinking about what you like in sweetness levels, acidity, tannins, and other elements of wine, helping you communicate with sommeliers and others tasked with serving you. If someone hands you a glass of wine and you do not know the variety, you may be able to taste specific qualities, such as acidity or spice, to take a stab at identifying what is in the glass. By comparing and contrasting the aspects of various grape varieties, you elevate your level of wine tasting knowledge. This type of detective work helps you gain a deeper understanding of how a variety’s traits (skin thickness, sugar level, early or late ripening, loose or tight clusters on the vine, proclivity to oxidation, vigor of growth, etc.) affect the wine that is ultimately bottled. 

Switch It Up will not work in every situation, however. Many wines are produced with a blend of grapes . . . or with no grapes whatsoever. While we are examining the core fruit ingredient in wine, the grape, let us not ignore the fact that wine can be made by fermenting virtually any fruit, including apples, blackberries, blueberries, cherries, pears, peaches, pineapples, plums, raspberries, rhubarb and strawberries, to name a few. Wine can also be made from honey and is known as mead or honey wine. Mead is thought to be the oldest fermented beverage. During medieval times, it was part of the wedding ritual and the celebrations that took place during the honeymoon.

Mead holds a special place in my heart and I make this ancient drink throughout the year. Friends have told me they are shocked by the taste of my mead because they were expecting a syrupy sweet, cloying drink. Just this morning, a friend of mine with years of experience making beer was nervous about making his first five-gallon batch of mead because it would be “too heavy and alcoholic.” While I have made full-bodied, semi-sweet meads, most that I make are dry, refreshing and carbonated, just like the beers my friend craves. You see, as the winemaker, I control the sweetness level, body and other elements of the mead. And so can my friend.

I like to include the addition of natural flavors like dried berries, hibiscus and other botanicals while creating meads with an alcohol level of around six or seven percent. However, these additions are optional. I use a light hand on flavoring, aiming for elegance and balance, with a tip of the hat to the character of the orange blossom or other honey varieties in the wine. At the heart of the recipe design and fermentation practices, I am aiming for a joyous experience for the drinker.

Every autumn, when I lived in Southern California, I joined my San Diego Craft Cider homebrew club to wash, grind, and press apples, then we took home the juice and fermented it to make tasty alcoholic cider. Sometimes I rely on the wild yeast from the apples to ferment the juice. Other times I use commercial yeast from a laboratory, or I opt for a combination of natural and commercial yeasts. Usually the cider is so delicious and nuanced that I do not bother adding flavor ingredients. I just keg the fermented cider, carbonate it and place it in the kegerator for pouring and sharing with friends and family. Join a homebrew club to get in on this type of fun.

Homebrew is the best gift I can offer friends while encouraging them to get involved with the fermentation of beverages. It is comforting to have bottles and kegs of mead, wine, cider and beer at home should there be a surprise. You never know when friends or family will drop by for a good chat and a meal. Talking about surprises, we all know that disasters happen. Did you know that you can survive on beer for months if food sources dry up? Of course, without vitamin C, scientists say that scurvy would set in at the two- or three-month mark and we would die in about six months. That is why I also stock up on water and food. Also, scurvy is a rather off-putting look, so dating would be a bit of a challenge, don’t you think?

Scurvy is a rather off-putting look, so dating would be a bit of a challenge, don’t you think?

When discussing and buying wine, though, most people think about the alcoholic beverage made from grapes. Wine made from grapes is not so exotic that you cannot make it yourself. My first was a Cabernet Franc from the Templeton Gap District of Paso Robles. My next was a Syrah from Valley View Vineyard in the Santa Ynez Valley. I make wine from grapes every year at harvest. You can make white wine, red wine, sparkling wine, rosé . . . pretty much whatever tickles your fancy. Pick out the attributes you like in wine, identify a grape variety, and get started in your search for grapes.

Most of the homebrewers I know have homebrew club memberships where, by sharing information and resources, they gain access to any raw materials and equipment needed. These homebrewers start small and learn as they go, increasing their volume and portfolio as they build confidence. Some become professionals, entering a business that is fraught with risk and competition. Others produce their beverages at a very high level, better than most commercial producers, and choose to simply share with friends and family. In most cases, the homebrewer is constantly striving to better understand and improve the many elements involved in making a delicious beverage. Even highly skilled brewers run into problems from time to time, and they call upon the collective braintrust of their homebrew club and other professional brewers to find solutions.

When I lived in Los Angeles, I got to know a homebrewer, Mel, who was kind enough to act as a mule for those of us who lived on  the west side of Los Angeles. Our homebrew club, the Maltose Falcons, conducts virtual beer tastings on a regular basis. To prepare for the tastings, a few members pick up beers from local breweries, then other members help distribute the beer to members in their neighborhoods. I have picked up beer from Mel twice now, and during that time we have connected on social media. One day he mentioned on a post that he is planning to make wine from grapes because he has seen my process and feels he can do it too. There is a vast community of homebrewers, near and far, physical and virtual, who are generous with information, support, inspiration . . . and drinks.

What follows in my new series is not a blind tasting grid. These are the attributes that my clients and I usually address when we are looking to Switch It Up to a new grape variety. I start by asking the taster what he or she likes in a wine beyond the obvious specifications of red, white, rosé, still, sparkling or fortified. The conversation often unfolds in roughly the sequence you will see in the series. This is not a technical list or even a complete list. In this context, you could call it a wine detective’s list. These are questions I routinely run through with clients as we search for the right bottle of wine. Also included are key descriptors voiced by clients, including those who are looking for “earthy” or “silky” or “oaky” wines.

The wine varieties in this series are top-of-mind grapes that typically fall under what is described. Add your own varieties to the list as you experience them in your tastings. I have also added less well known grapes that may be intriguing alternatives to what you are drinking currently. Now let’s talk about what is not on the list. Blends are not included. Varieties that fall in the middle of the spectrum for the characteristic being described (such as acidity level) are not listed. Those two exclusions alone eliminate a large number of delicious wines including many Bordeaux reds and whites, Sherry, Port, Champagne and Cava, and much more.

The list is by grape variety, such as Riesling, and not necessarily by style, such as sparkling wines or fortified wines. Wines that are described by region are not included, such as Burgundy; rather, the description is by grape. Clearly, finding a new wine depends on much more than grape identification and investigation. Think of these as general guidelines and be aware that each wine varies according to the vineyard, location, vintage, producer and other factors. Acidity, tannins, flavor concentration and other wine attributes differ from region to region or even vineyard to vineyard, for that matter, and there will always be exceptions and surprises.

Wine can be made in opposite styles using the same grape, so that’s a curveball you want to be aware of. For example, the Sémillon grape is generally linked with the production of the rich-bodied, low-acid, almost oily wines produced in Bordeaux. However, just a couple of days ago, I drank a Sémillon from the Hunter Valley wine region of Australia. It had a zesty acidity and a light body that made it a perfect summer sipper, much like a Sauvignon Blanc from New Zealand. Based on the Hunter Valley example, I can deduce that the Sémillon grapes were picked young in the vineyard to preserve the acidity and that no oak or malolactic fermentation was involved in the making of the wine, leaving the body lean. These differences in character from the same grape reflect not only the decisions of the vineyard manager and winemaker but also climate and other terroir considerations.

Vermentino and Godello grapes are also popularly presented in either a full-bodied, lush and creamy style or a light-bodied, easy drinking style. Chardonnay and Chenin Blanc grapes are so versatile that they are made in the whole spectrum of dry to sweet wines with alcohol levels that go from low to high. Paradoxically, Pinot Noir and Gamay can be categorized as either earthy or fruity. These grapes are naturally fruity, but if they are fermented with stems/whole cluster, they gravitate towards a savory, herbaceous earthiness. An appreciation of wine grapes is so complex as to defy black-and-white comparisons. And yet I cannot resist.

So you see, the upcoming series is a fly-by-the-seat-of-your-pants compilation couched in a tight scope. Wine is so nuanced that there is room for a range of perceptions and interpretations. If you research the varieties in this series, it is not unusual to find contradictory information from one expert source to another. Not every wine professional will agree with the grapes listed in this series because there are so many exceptions and possible additions, but you may find it helpful in finding patterns to reduce the mysteries associated with your next wine purchasing adventure. Good hunting!

This is the first in a series of Grape Detective blogs featuring the attributes of wine and how your love for a specific wine grape may lead you to discover new ones with similar characteristics.